WRITTEN TESTIMONY OF DR. MATTHEW BLAZE

BEFORE THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, SCIENCE, AND TRANSPORTATION,
SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SPACE

JUNE 26, 1996

Thank you for the opportunity to speak with you about the technical
impact of encryption policy.  It is a privilege to be here, and I hope
my perspective will be useful to you.

Let me begin by describing my own background and biases.  I am a
Principal Research Scientist in the area of computer security and
cryptology at AT&T Research in Murray Hill, New Jersey.  I also hold a
number of ancillary appointments related to computer security; among
others, I teach an occasional graduate course in the subject at
Columbia University, and I serve as co-chair of the Federal Networking
Council Advisory Committee subcommittee on security and privacy (which
advises Federal agencies on computer networking issues).  However, the
views I am presenting here today are my own, and should not be taken
to represent those of any organization with which I happen to be
affiliated.

I am a computer scientist by training; my Ph.D. is from the Princeton
University Computer Science department, and my primary research areas
are cryptology, computer security, and large-scale distributed
systems.  Much of my research focuses on the management of encryption
keys in networked computing systems and understanding the risks of
using cryptographic techniques to accomplish security objectives.
Recent government initiatives in encryption, such as the "Clipper
Chip," have naturally been of great interest to me, in no small part
because of the policy impact they have on the field in which I work,
but also because they present a number of very interesting technical
and scientific challenges in their own right.

My testimony today focuses on three areas.  First, I will discuss the
role and risks of cryptographic techniques for securing the current
and future electronic world.  Next, I will examine in more detail the
security implications of the limitations imposed on US-based
cryptographic systems through the government's export policies.
Finally, I will discuss the technical aspects of the Administration's
current approach to cryptography policy, which promotes "key escrow"
systems.


I THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF ENCRYPTION

The importance of cryptographic techniques for securing modern
computer and communications systems is widely recognized today.
Evidence of the scope of this recognition can be found in the
increasing number of hardware, software, and system vendors that offer
encryption in their products, the increasing demand for high-quality
encryption by users in a widening array of applications, and the
growing, thriving community of cryptologic researchers of which I am a
part.  It is vital that those who formulate our nation's policies and
official attitude toward encryption understand the nature of the
underlying technology and the reasons for its growing importance to
our society.

The basic function of cryptography is to separate the security of a
message's content from the security of the medium over which it is
carried.  For example, we might encrypt a cellular telephone
conversation to guard against eavesdroppers (allowing the call to be
transmitted safely over easily-intercepted radio frequencies), or we
might use encryption to verify that documents, such as contracts, have
not been tampered with (removing the need to safeguard a copy of the
original).  The idea that this might be possible is not a new one;
history suggests that the desire to protect information is almost as
old as the written word itself.  Perhaps as a consequence of the
invention of the digital computer, our understanding of the theory and
practice of cryptography has accelerated in recent years, with a
number of new techniques developed and many new applications emerging.
Among the most important of the recent techniques is "public key
cryptography."  It allows secure messages to be exchanged without the
need for specific advance arrangements between parties.  A related
notion is the "digital signature," which allows messages to be
"signed" in a way that verifiably associates the signer of a message
with its content.

Modern cryptographic techniques are based on the application of
simple, if repetitive, mathematical functions, and as such lend
themselves nicely to implementation by computer programs.  Any
information that can be represented digitally can be protected by
encryption, including computer files, electronic mail messages, and
even audio and video signals such as telephone calls, radio, and
television.  Encryption can be performed by means of software on
general-purpose computers, through special-purpose hardware, or by
special programming of microprocessor-based electronic products such
as the next generation of cellular telephones.  The basic cost of
encryption in terms of computational power required is quite low, and
the marginal cost of including encryption in a software-based computer
program or a programmable electronic product is essentially zero.

Why, then, has encryption recently enjoyed so much attention?  The
reasons can be found from two perspectives: the technology of modern
communication systems, and the new purposes for which we are relying
on digital information.

First, the technology and economics of modern communications and
computing systems strongly favors media that have little inherent
security.  For example, wireless telephones have great advantages in
convenience and functionality compared with their familiar wired
counterparts and are comprising an increasing proportion of the
telephone network.  This also makes eavesdropping much easier for
curious neighbors, burglars identifying potential targets, and
industrial spies seeking to misappropriate trade secrets.  Similarly,
decentralized computer networks such as the Internet have lower
barriers to entry, are much less expensive, are more robust and can be
used to accomplish a far greater variety of tasks than the proprietary
networks of the past, but, again, at the expense of intrinsic
security.  The Internet makes it virtually impossible to restrict, or
even predict, the path that a particular message will traverse, and
there is no way to be certain where a message really originated or
whether its content has been altered along the way.  It is possible,
even common, for electronic mail messages to route through the
computers of competitors.  This is not a result of sloppy design or
poor planning on the part of the Internet's architects; on the
contrary, these properties are a direct consequence of the
technological advances that make the Internet efficient and useful in
the first place.

Second, electronic communication is becoming increasingly critical to
the smooth functioning of our society and our economy and even to
protect the safety of human life.  Communication networks and computer
media are rapidly replacing less efficient, traditional modes of
interaction whose security properties are far better understood.  As
teleconferencing replaces face-to-face meetings, electronic mail
replaces letters, electronic payment systems replace cash
transactions, and on-line information services replace written
reference materials, we gain a great deal in efficiency, but our
assumptions about the reliability of very ordinary transactions are
often dangerously out-of-date.

Put another way, the trend in communication and computing networks has
been away from closed systems in favor of more open ones and the trend
in our society is to rely on these new systems for increasingly
serious purposes.  There is every reason to believe that these trends
will continue, and even accelerate, for the foreseeable future.
Cryptography plays an important and clear role in helping to provide
security assurances that at least mirror what we have come to expect
from the older, more familiar communications methods of the
not-so-distant past.


II KEY LENGTH AND SECURITY

The "strength" of an encryption system depends on a number of
variables, including the mathematical properties of the underlying
encryption function, the quality of the implementation, and the number
of different "keys" from which the user is able to choose. It is very
important that a cryptosystem and its implementation be of high
quality, since an error or bug in either can expose the data it
protects to unexpected vulnerabilities.  Although the mathematics of
cryptography is not completely understood and cipher design is an
exceptionally difficult discipline (there is as yet no general
"theory" for designing cipher functions), there are a number of common
cipher systems that have been extensively studied and that are widely
trusted as building blocks for secure systems.  The implementation of
practical systems out of these building blocks, too, is a subtle and
difficult art, but commercial experience in this area is beginning to
lead to good practices for adding high-quality encryption systems to
software and hardware.  Users and developers of secure systems can
protect against weaknesses in these areas by choosing only cipher
functions that have been carefully studied and by ensuring that their
implementation follows good engineering practices.

The most easily quantified variable that contributes to the strength
of an encryption system is the size of the pool of potential values
from which the cryptographic keys are chosen.  Modern ciphers depend
on the secrecy of the users' keys, and a system is considered
well-designed only if the easiest "attack" involves trying every
possible key, one after the other, until the correct one is found.
The system is secure only if the number of keys is large enough to
make such an attack infeasible.  Keys are usually specified as a
string of "bits," and adding one bit to the key length doubles the
number of possible keys.  An important question, then, is the minimum
key length sufficient to resist a key search attack in practice.

Last November, I participated in a study, organized by the Business
Software Alliance, aimed at examining the computer technology that
might be used by an "attacker" in order to determine the minimum
length keys that should be used in commercial applications.  We
followed an unusually conservative methodology in that we assumed that
the attacker would have only available standard "off-the-shelf"
technology and is constrained to purchase in single-unit quantities
with no economies of scale.  That is, our methodology would tend to
produce a recommendation for shorter keys than would an analysis using
the more conventional approach of giving the potential attacker every
benefit of the doubt in terms of technological advantages he might
enjoy.  Nonetheless, we concluded that the key lengths recommended in
existing U.S. government standards (e.g., the Data Encryption
Standard, with a 56-bit key) for domestic use are far too short and
will soon render data protected under them vulnerable to attack with
only modest resources.  We concluded that keys today should be a bare
minimum of 75 bits long, and that systems being fielded today to
secure data over the next twenty years must employ keys of at least 90
bits. I have included a copy of our report as an appendix to my
testimony.

Attempting to design systems "at the margins" by using the minimum key
length needed is a dubious enterprise at best.  Because even a slight
miscalculation as to the technology and resources available to the
potential attacker can make the difference between a secure system and
an insecure one, prudent designers specify keys that are longer than
the minimum they estimate is needed to resist attack, to provide a
margin for error.

Current U.S. policy encourages the designers of encryption systems to
take exactly the opposite approach.  Encryption systems designed for
export from the United States at present generally must use keys no
more than 40 bits long.  Such systems provide essentially no
cryptographic security, except against the most casual "hacker."
Examples of 40 bit systems being "broken" through the use of spare
computer time on university computer networks are
commonplace. Unfortunately, it is not only users outside the U.S. who
must make do with the inferior security provided by such short keys.
Because of the difficulty of maintaining multiple versions of
software, one for domestic sale and one for export, and the need for
common interoperability standards, many US-based products are
available only with export-length keys.

There is no technical, performance, or economic benefit to employing
keys shorter than needed.  Unlike, for example, the locks used to
protect our homes, very secure cryptographic systems with long keys
are no more expensive to produce or any harder to design or use than
weaker systems with shorter keys.  The only reason vendors design
systems with short keys is to comply with export requirements.

The key length figures and analysis in this section are based on
so-called "secret key" cryptosystems.  For technical reasons, current
public key cryptosystems employ much longer keys than secret key
systems to achieve equivalent security (public keys are measured in
hundreds or thousands of bits).  However, virtually all systems that
use public key cryptography also rely on secret key cryptography, and
so the overall strength of any system is limited by the weakest
encryption function and key length in it.

III THE RISKS OF KEY ESCROW

A number of recent Administration initiatives have proposed that
future cryptosystems include special "key escrow" provisions to
facilitate access to encrypted data by law enforcement and
intelligence agencies.  In a such systems, copies of keys are
automatically deposited, in advance, with third parties who can use
them to arrange for law enforcement access if required in the future.
Several key escrow systems have been proposed by the Administration,
differing in the details of how keys are escrowed, and who the third
party key holders are.  In the first proposal, called the "Clipper
chip," the system is embedded in a special tamper-resistant
hardware-based cryptosystem and copies of keys are held by federal
agencies.  In the more recent "public key infrastructure" proposal,
keys are escrowed at the time a new public key is generated and are
held by the organization (public or private) responsible for
certification of the public key.

Although the various key escrow proposals differ in the details of how
they accomplish their objective, there are a number of very serious
fundamental problems and risks associated with all of them.

There are some appropriate commercial applications of key escrow
techniques.  A properly designed cryptosystem makes it essentially
impossible to recover encrypted data without the correct key.  This
can be a double-edge sword; the cost of keeping unauthorized parties
out is that if keys are lost or unavailable at the time they are
needed, the owner of encrypted data will be unable to make use of his
own information.  This problem, of balancing secrecy with assurances
of continued availability, remains an area of active research, and
commercial solutions are starting to emerge.  The Administration's
initiatives do not address this problem especially well, however.

The first problem with key escrow is the great increase in engineering
complexity that such systems entail.  The design and implementation of
even the simplest encryption systems is an extraordinarily difficult
and delicate process.  Very small changes can introduce fatal security
flaws that often can be exploited by an attacker.  Ordinary
(non-escrowed) encryption systems have conceptually rather simple
requirements (for example, the secure transmission of data between two
parties) and yet, because there is no general theory for designing
them, we still often discover exploitable flaws in fielded systems.
Key escrow renders even the specification of the problem itself far
more complex, making it virtually impossible to assure that such
systems work as they are intended to.  It is possible, even likely,
that lurking in any key escrow system are one or more design
weaknesses that allow recovery of data by unauthorized parties. The
commercial and academic world simply does not have the tools to
analyze or design the complex systems that arise from escrow.

Key escrow is so difficult that even systems designed by the
classified world can have subtle problems that are only discovered
later.  In 1994 I discovered a new type of "protocol failure" in the
Escrowed Encryption Standard, the system on which the Clipper chip is
based.  The failure allows, contrary to the design objectives of the
system, a rogue user to circumvent the escrow system in a way that
makes the data unrecoverable by the government.  Others weaknesses
have been discovered since then that make it possible, for example, to
create incriminating messages that appear to have originated from a
particular user.

It should be noted that these weaknesses have been discovered in spite
of the fact that most of the details of the standard are classified
and were not included in the analysis that led to the discovery of the
flaws.  But these problems did not come about because of incompetence
on the part of the system's designers.  Indeed, the U.S. National
Security Agency is likely the most advanced cryptographic enterprise
in the world, and is justifiably entrusted with developing the
cryptographic systems that safeguard the government's most important
military and state secrets.  The reason the Escrowed Encryption
Standard has flaws that are still being discovered is that key escrow
is an extremely difficult technical problem, with requirements unlike
anything previously encountered.

A second problem with key escrow arises from the difficulty of
operating a key escrow center in a secure manner.  According to the
Administration (for example, see the May 20, 1996 White House draft
report "Enabling Privacy, Commerce, Security and Public Safety in the
Global Information Infrastructure"), key escrow centers must be
prepared to respond to law enforcement requests for escrowed data 24
hours a day, completing transactions within two hours of receiving
each request.  There are thousands of law enforcement agencies in the
United States authorized to perform electronic surveillance, and the
escrow center must be prepared to identify and respond to any of them
within this time frame.  If the escrow center is also a commercial
operation providing data recovery services, it may also have tens of
thousands of additional private sector customers that it must be
prepared to serve and respond to.  There are few, if any, secure
systems that operate effectively on such a scale and under such
tightly-constrained response time.  The argument, advanced by the
Administration, that escrow centers can use the same procedures that
protect classified data is a curious one, since classified information
is by its nature available to a far smaller and more
carefully-controlled potential audience than are escrowed keys.  It is
simply inevitable that escrow centers that meet the government's
requirements will make mistakes in giving out the wrong keys from time
to time or will be vulnerable to fraudulent key requests.  Key escrow,
by its nature, makes encrypted data less secure because the escrow
center introduces a new target for attack.

A third problem with the Administration's key escrow proposals is that
they fail to distinguish between cryptographic keys for which recovery
might be required and those for which recoverability is never needed.
There are many different kinds of encryption keys, but for the
purposes of discussing key escrow it is sufficient to divide keys into
three categories.  The first includes keys used to encrypt stored
information, which must be available throughout the lifetime of the
data.  The owner of the data has an obvious interest in ensuring the
continued availability of such keys, and might choose to rely on a
commercial service to store "backup" copies of such keys.  A second
category of key includes those used to encrypt real-time
communications such as telephone calls.  Here, the key has no value to
its owner once the transaction for which it was used has completed.
If a key is lost or destroyed in the middle of a conversation, a new
one can be established in its place without permanent loss of
information.  For these keys, the owner has no use for recoverability;
it is of value only to law enforcement and others who wish to obtain
access to a conversation without the knowledge or cooperation of the
parties.  Finally, there are the keys used not for secrecy but for
signature and authentication, to insure that messages indeed
originated from a particular party.  There is never a need for anyone,
law enforcement or the key owner, to recover such keys, since their
purpose is not to obscure content but rather to establish authorship.
If the owner looses a signature key, a new one can be generated easily
at any time.

Unfortunately, however, the current Administration proposal exposes
all three types of keys equally to the risks introduced by the escrow
system, even though recoverability is not required for all of them.
Partly this is because there is no intrinsic difference in the
structure of the different types of keys; they are usually
indistinguishable from one another outside of the application in which
they are used.

Finally, there is the problem that criminals can circumvent almost any
escrow system to avoid exposure to law enforcement monitoring.  All
key escrow systems are vulnerable to so-called "superencryption," in
which a user first encrypts data with an unescrowed key prior to
processing it with the escrowed system.  Most escrow systems are also
vulnerable to still other techniques that make it especially easy to
render escrowed keys useless to law enforcement.  The ease of avoiding
law enforcement when convenient raises an obvious question as to
whether the reduced security and high cost of setting up an escrow
system will yield any appreciable public safety benefit in practice.


IV CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The wide availability of encryption is vitally important to the future
growth of our global information infrastructure.  In many cases,
encryption offers the only viable option for securing the rapidly
increasing range of human, economic and social activities taking place
over emerging communication networks.  It is no exaggeration to say
that the availability of encryption in the commercial marketplace is
and will continue to be necessary to protect national security.
Unfortunately, current policy, through export controls and ambiguous
standards, discourages, rather than promotes, the use of encryption.

Current encryption policy is enormously frustrating to almost everyone
working in the field.  Export controls make it difficult to deploy
effective cryptography even domestically, and we can do little more
than watch as our foreign colleagues and competitors, not constrained
by these rules, are matching our expertise and obtaining an
ever-increasing share of the market.  A large part of the problem is
that the current regulations were written as if to cover hardware but
are applied to software, including software in the public domain or
aimed at the mass market.  The PRO-CODE bill goes a long way toward
moving the regulations in line with the realities of the technology.